MORE WRITING TIPS (adapted from "Clarity and Precision", available here)

1. Avoid the following phrases - they add nothing to content and make writing dense. Many can be avoided by scanning your essay for "there are/is …" and "it … that".

it was observed that

in the case of

it stands to reason that

there have been studies showing

it has been demonstrated that

it is worth noting that

as already stated

the fact that

it has been shown that

it has been suggested that

it is clear that

research has shown that

it is thought that

studies have shown that

in order to

it is hypothesized that

there are several hypotheses that

2. Substitute the following complex words or phrases with simpler versions.

Complex	Simple
afford an opportunity to	allow
utilize	use
additionally	also
give rise to	cause
in the event that	if
in all cases	always
owing to the fact that	because
with the exception of	except
after this has been done	then
prior to	before

3. Avoid putting too many ideas into each sentence. Short sentences are easier to understand than long sentences.

Example: To study the mechanisms involved in mate choice in frogs of three species, a spotting scope was set up at the edge of a pond for 15 minutes with observers counting the number of times males of each species called, the number of times females approached calling males and the number of times they each spawned.

Revision: The aim of the study was to determine the mechanisms of mate choice in three species of frog. To determine male behaviour, observers counted the number of times males of each species called in 15 minutes. Observers also counted the number of times females approached calling males and how often each spawned.

4. Put parallel ideas (i.e. ideas that are equal in logic and importance) in parallel form. If ideas are written in parallel form, the form of the first idea prepares the reader for the form of the next idea. Overall, this makes it easier to read.

Example: Female frogs choose males based on the frequency of their calls. The size of the male may also be important in female choice.

Revision: Female frogs choose males based on the frequency of their calls. Females may also choose males based on their size.

5. Overuse of nouns makes for ponderous writing; use well-chosen verbs whenever you can.

Example: Acquisition of clarity and vigour in the writing of essays can be achieved by use of verbs in replacement of nouns.

Revision: Replace nouns with verbs to clarify and invigorate your essays.